Heinz Kohut and Object Relations

Heinz Kohut and the Development of Self Psychology

Heinz Kohut (1913–1981) stands among the most influential post-Freudian psychoanalytic thinkers of the twentieth century. As the founder of self psychology, he provided a radical rethinking of psychoanalytic theory by placing the concept of the self—rather than drive or ego—at the center of psychological functioning. Kohut’s work emerged from both clinical necessity and theoretical innovation, offering a new lens through which to understand narcissistic disorders, empathy, and the therapeutic relationship.

Biographical Background

Heinz Kohut was born in Vienna in 1913 into an assimilated Jewish family. He studied medicine at the University of Vienna and emigrated to the United States in 1939, shortly before the Nazi annexation of Austria. Once in Chicago, he trained at the Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis and later became a prominent figure in American psychoanalysis, serving as president of the American Psychoanalytic Association in 1964. Although originally a Freudian, Kohut began to deviate from classical psychoanalysis due to his clinical encounters with patients suffering from narcissistic personality disorders—patients who did not respond to traditional Freudian interpretations of drives and conflicts (Strozier, 2001).

From Classical Psychoanalysis to Self Psychology

Initially, Kohut worked within the framework of ego psychology, which viewed the ego as a structure mediating between the id, superego, and external reality. However, he found that this model failed to explain or effectively treat patients with disturbances in the cohesion and development of the self, particularly those with narcissistic vulnerabilities (Kohut, 1971).

In response, he gradually moved away from the drive-conflict model and began constructing an alternative theory that emphasized the self as a central psychological structure. His seminal work, The Analysis of the Self (1971), laid the groundwork for a theory that would shift the focus of psychoanalysis from unconscious conflict to the developmental needs and deficits of the self.

Core Concepts of Self Psychology

At the heart of self psychology lies the idea that the self is a structure that requires specific developmental conditions to emerge and remain cohesive. Kohut introduced several key concepts that define his approach:

1. The Self

For Kohut, the self is the central organizer of human experience. It possesses continuity over time and a sense of inner cohesion. A healthy self is one that is cohesive, resilient, and capable of maintaining self-esteem and meaning across life’s challenges (Kohut, 1977). Pathology arises not from internal conflict but from a fragmented or deficient self-structure.

2. Empathy and Vicarious Introspection

Kohut emphasized empathy not merely as a therapeutic technique but as the very method of psychoanalysis. He described empathy as “vicarious introspection”—a disciplined form of entering the inner world of the patient (Kohut, 1984). This empathic stance allows the analyst to understand the subjective experience of the patient, particularly the developmental failures and unmet needs.

3. Selfobject and Selfobject Functions

Kohut coined the term selfobject to describe external figures—typically caregivers—who perform functions necessary for the development and maintenance of the self. Unlike traditional “objects” in object relations theory, selfobjects are not fully separate from the self during early development; they are experienced as part of the self’s psychic field.

Kohut identified three primary selfobject needs:

• Mirroring: the need for affirmation, validation, and recognition.
• Idealization: the need to merge with an admired figure who provides strength and calm.
• Twinship or Alter Ego: the need to feel a sense of likeness or belonging with another.

When these needs are adequately met in early relationships, the child internalizes the functions of the selfobject and develops a strong, cohesive self. Failures in these processes result in developmental arrests or fragmentation.

4. The Tripolar Self

Kohut conceptualized the self as tripolar, organized around three developmental lines corresponding to the selfobject functions mentioned above:

• The grandiose self (seeking mirroring),
• The idealized parental imago (seeking idealization),
• The alter ego/twinship pole (seeking sameness and belonging) (Wolf, 1988).

A balanced development across these three poles results in a healthy and dynamic self-structure.

Clinical Implications and Therapeutic Process

Kohut’s approach to treatment differed markedly from classical analytic technique. He argued that rather than interpreting unconscious conflicts, the analyst’s primary task was to respond empathically to the patient’s developmental needs. Interpretations that came too early or without empathic attunement were likely to be experienced as retraumatizing.

Kohut introduced the concept of optimal frustration, referring to minor, well-timed empathic failures by the analyst. These frustrations allow the patient to gradually internalize selfobject functions and build psychic structure. Rather than aiming for insight alone, the goal of therapy is structural transformation through a “corrective emotional experience” rooted in empathic responsiveness (Kohut, 1984).

Kohut and Narcissism

Kohut redefined narcissism not as a pathological fixation on the self, but as a normal and necessary component of psychological development. He distinguished between:

• Normal narcissism, which supports ambition, creativity, and self-esteem;
• Pathological narcissism, which results from developmental arrest and selfobject failure.

Whereas Freud viewed narcissism as a regression to an earlier libidinal stage, Kohut saw it as a forward-moving line of development that, when disrupted, leads to self-disorders (Kohut, 1971; 1977).

Transpersonal Dimensions

Kohut’s emphasis on the self as a cohesive and meaning-seeking entity opened new avenues for dialogue between psychoanalysis and transpersonal psychology. According to Schipke (2017), Kohut’s concept of cosmic narcissism reflects a developmental stage in which the self transcends egoic boundaries and seeks connection with larger, often spiritual realities. This dimension of Kohut’s thought parallels Jung’s view of individuation and suggests that mature self-cohesion may culminate in a transcendent, transpersonal experience.

Scholars such as Ferrer (2002) have drawn upon Kohut’s work to explore the potential intersection between psychoanalytic and spiritual development. Although Kohut did not directly engage with religious or spiritual frameworks, his theory allows for the possibility of ego transcendence through healthy self-development.

Legacy and Evaluation

Heinz Kohut’s work marked a major turning point in psychoanalytic thought. By shifting the focus from drives to the self and from interpretation to empathy, he laid the foundation for what would later become the relational turn in psychoanalysis. Though some critics argued that Kohut abandoned core psychoanalytic principles, his clinical insights proved invaluable for working with patients previously deemed “untreatable” by classical methods.

Self psychology has continued to evolve, influencing contemporary approaches such as intersubjectivity theory, relational psychoanalysis, and even integrative psychotherapy. Its emphasis on empathy, development, and subjective experience remains central to modern therapeutic practice.

References

• Ferrer, J. N. (2002). Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality. SUNY Press.
• Kohut, H. (1971). The Analysis of the Self: A Systematic Approach to the Psychoanalytic Treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorders. International Universities Press.
• Kohut, H. (1977). The Restoration of the Self. International Universities Press.
• Kohut, H. (1984). How Does Analysis Cure? University of Chicago Press.
• Schipke, T. (2017). Narcissism, ego, and self: Kohut—A key figure in transpersonal psychology. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 49(1), 3–21.
• Strozier, C. B. (2001). Heinz Kohut: The Making of a Psychoanalyst. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
• Wolf, E. S. (1988). Treating the Self: Elements of Clinical Self Psychology. Guilford Press.